Among the many architectural monuments of southern Tajikistan, one of the most fascinating is the memorial complex of Khoja Mashhad Madrasa. Situated 210 kilometers southwest of Dushanbe and 6 kilometers from the district center of Shaartuz, it lies in the lower reaches of the Kafirnigan River.
The name «Kafirnigan» translates to «refuge of the infidels»—a name rooted in the early first millennium when Buddhist and Nestorian monasteries lined the river’s banks. The term «Kafirnigan» was likely given by the Arabs, who destroyed these religious structures and exterminated those who practiced these faiths, deeming them «infidels.»
The region surrounding this historical site has a rich and at times tragic history. In the 3rd-2nd centuries BCE, following Alexander the Great’s conquests, this area became part of the Greco-Bactrian kingdom. Later, the region was overtaken by the Tocharians, who came from the Great Steppe, leading to the establishment of the Kushan Empire in a place they named Tokharistan.
In the 7th century, this territory fell under Arab conquest, and later it was captured and ravaged by the Mongols. The surrounding area, known for centuries as Kabodian, served as a magnet for both conquerors and pilgrims alike.
The Khoja Mashhad Madrasa was built in the 9th-10th centuries by a real person—Khoja Mashhad, whose title «Khoja» signifies one who has completed the pilgrimage to Mecca, the Hajj. The name «Mashhad» might reference the Iranian city of Mashhad, indicating his place of origin.
Khoja Mashhad, a devout preacher of Islam and a man of means, was the driving force behind the construction of the madrasa—a religious and educational institution for Muslims. After his death, Khoja Mashhad was buried in a mausoleum within the complex, which then became a memorial site.
Before delving into the specifics of the Khoja Mashhad complex, it’s important to highlight a significant technological advancement in construction that occurred in the 9th-10th centuries—the transition from sun-dried bricks to fired bricks. These bricks, produced on-site and fired in kilns at temperatures exceeding 1,000 degrees Celsius, were square-shaped, ranging in size from 23×23 cm to 45×45 cm, and were 4 to 7 cm thick.
This technological shift can be observed across Central Asia, with notable examples including the Samanid Mausoleum in Bukhara, the Arabat Mausoleum in Samarkand, and the Khoja Mashhad Madrasa in southern Tajikistan. The use of fired bricks enabled architects to develop dome and arch structures, elevating construction from mere craftsmanship to an art form that blended mathematical precision with an impeccable sense of proportion.
Visually, the Khoja Mashhad complex comprises two adjacent domed buildings connected by a vaulted passage. Research initiated in the 1950s revealed that these two structures were built at different times—the first in the 9th-10th centuries, and the second later in the 11th-12th centuries. Both buildings were constructed with fired bricks, which has contributed to their remarkable preservation.
Though similar in appearance, the two buildings differ in both construction time and architectural details. The eastern domed building, measuring 11×11 meters and standing 13 meters tall, features a distinctive brick pattern where horizontal rows are interspersed with vertical brick inserts. This building contains graves of those who perished during the Mongol invasion.
The western building, slightly smaller at 10.5×10.5 meters and 14 meters high, showcases a variety of unique brick patterns in a «herringbone» design. It houses the mihrab—a niche in the interior wall indicating the direction of Mecca, suggesting that this building likely served as a madrasa where religious services were conducted.
Beneath the dome, there is a decorative band of tiles with remnants of Arabic script. According to the caretaker, this was designed as a visual guide for worshippers to follow with their eyes during prayers. Both buildings have circular openings at the top, allowing light to penetrate the interiors.
The domes and the vaulted passage connecting the two structures are particularly unique. They were constructed without any auxiliary elements, built simultaneously from all four corners using a step-by-step brick-laying method, ultimately creating a thin, single-brick-width vault.
One can only marvel at the talent and dedication of the architects, artists, and builders who, with the most basic tools, created a structure so harmonious and perfectly proportioned that it continues to impress even today.
To the north of the Khoja Mashhad Madrasa lies a large courtyard surrounded by ruins, including two domed structures. Unlike the madrasa and Khoja Mashhad’s mausoleum, these were constructed from sun-dried bricks, which is why they have not survived to the present day. The entire courtyard and the domed halls are filled with old, weathered graves and crumbling tombstones.
Scholars are still debating the true purpose of the Khoja Mashhad complex. Some researchers believe it was originally a madrasa, a Muslim secondary school, as evidenced by the small, cramped cells around the courtyard where students likely lived. It’s also possible that the complex served as a mosque for the local community. After Khoja Mashhad’s death, his burial in one of the domed buildings may have led to the establishment of the mausoleum.
Another theory suggests that the complex was a khanqah—a place where Sufi followers, wandering dervishes, and pilgrims lived and performed religious rituals. This theory is supported by the presence of large rooms for prayer, gatherings, dining halls, baths, and burial sites for local religious authorities.
There is also speculation that Nasir Khusraw, a prominent poet, philosopher, and traveler of the 11th century who hailed from Kabodian, may have lived and studied here. Nasir Khusraw is known for his works advocating rationalism and justice, views that often conflicted with the official Islamic ideology of his time. During his travels to Cairo, he became a follower of the Ismaili sect of Islam and later brought its teachings to Badakhshan, where he preached until his death. Here are a few of his lines:
«Woe to the one who takes on a task beyond their strength to complete.
When engaging in the race of argument, don’t be hasty, and you won’t stumble.
In the bitter advice of a friend, there is honey at its core.»
It’s also possible that the Khoja Mashhad complex was part of the ancient city of Saqara, which once existed in this area. The abundance of ruined structures suggests that this was a city with a highly developed infrastructure for its time.