Turkmenistan’s historical roots extend back to the early Paleolithic era, as evidenced by numerous stone tools discovered from this period. The Neolithic era left its mark through the remnants of ancient settlements such as the Dzhebel grottos, located along the eastern coast of the Caspian Sea.
Southern Turkmenistan is noted for its early advances in agriculture and animal husbandry. The village of Dzheitun, near Ashgabat, stands out as one of the earliest known agricultural settlements, dating back to around 6000 BC.
Throughout antiquity, the region now known as Turkmenistan was home to several prominent civilizations. By 1000 BC, states such as Margiana, Parthia, and Media flourished here. These civilizations fell under Persian control in the 6th century BC, becoming part of the Achaemenid Empire. This empire was later conquered by Alexander the Great in the 4th century BC, and following his death, the territory became part of the Seleucid Empire.
In the 7th and 8th centuries, Arab conquerors introduced Islam to Turkmenistan. During the 9th and 10th centuries, the region was integrated into the Takhirid and Samanid states. By the 11th to 13th centuries, it was absorbed into the Seljuk Empire. In the 13th century, Genghis Khan’s Mongol armies annexed Turkmenistan into their vast empire.
The Great Silk Road, which symbolized cultural exchange between the East and the West, passed through Turkmenistan. This ancient trade route connected regions from the Sinai Peninsula across Central Asia and India to the shores of the Black and Mediterranean Seas.
By the early 16th century, northern Turkmen tribes had spread across various regions including the east coast of the Caspian Sea, the Mangyshlak Peninsula, Ustyurt, Balkhany, and parts of the Kara Kum Desert. These tribes practiced a semi-nomadic lifestyle, combining agriculture with cattle breeding. During this period, Turkmen society was characterized by a mix of nomadic and agricultural practices.
In the 17th to 19th centuries, Turkmenistan was contested among the Persian Shah, Khiva Khan, and Bukhara Emir, resulting in the division of Turkmen territories among these states. Iranian Shah Nadir held much of Turkmenistan and brutally repressed Turkmen resistance, leading to significant suffering and displacement among the local population. After Nadir Shah’s assassination in 1747 and the collapse of his empire, many Turkmen tribes returned to their southern homelands.
Lake Sarykamysh, a vital resource for the Turkmen tribes, began to dry up during this period, prompting migration to the Kopet Dagh region and further southeast to the valleys of the Murghab and Amu Darya. Throughout the 17th century, northern Turkmen and the city of Khorezm faced frequent raids from the Kalmyks seeking new territories.
By the late 17th century, some Turkmen tribes, beleaguered by attacks from Kalmyks and Khiva forces, sought refuge and Russian citizenship in the Northern Caucasus. At this time, the Turkmen had settled across modern Turkmenistan, parts of Iran, and Afghanistan, with some residing in Ustyurt and Mangyshlak alongside Kazakh nomads. The Turkmen were divided into numerous tribes, such as the Tekes, Yomuts, Ersaris, Saryks, Salyrys, Goklens, and Chovdurs, with a complex social hierarchy including «thoroughbreds,» slaves, and concubines.
In 1869, the Russians established the port of Krasnovodsk on the Caspian Sea’s east coast. By the mid-1880s, Turkmenistan was incorporated into the Russian Empire, which quelled the Turkmen revolt in 1881 after the fall of the Geok-Tebe fortress. Under Russian rule, Turkmenistan began integrating into the emerging capitalist economy, replacing its traditional social structures with more modern systems.
The construction of the Trans-Caspian Railway between 1880 and 1885 brought significant economic development, leading to the rise of new cities and industries. This era marked the beginning of capitalist influences within the previously patriarchal and feudal Turkmen society. Following the Russian Revolution of 1917, Soviet power was established first in the Trans-Caspian area and subsequently across Turkmenistan.
On April 30, 1918, the Turkestani Independent Soviet Socialist Republic was formed, integrating Turkmenistan into the RSFSR. In July 1918, English-backed Socialist revolutionaries took control briefly, but by July 1919, the Red Army had ousted the British and restored Soviet authority.
On October 27, 1924, the Turkmen SSR was officially established, and in February 1925, it joined the USSR voluntarily. Post-World War II, Turkmenistan endured a devastating earthquake in 1948, but through the collective efforts of Soviet republics, the economy was rebuilt and modernized, including the development of an oil-and-gas sector and the construction of the Kara Kum Canal.
Visit ancient city of Merv
Explore UNESCO-listed Old Nisa
Marvel at Darvaza Gas Crater
See Akhalteke horses up close
Tour Ashgabat’s white marble buildings