The Sage Who Mastered the Canon

The Early Middle Ages in the far south of Uzbekistan, particularly in the Surkhandarya Valley, marked a period of flourishing for a unique culture that left an indelible mark on the history of Central Asia and the entire Muslim world. This era produced renowned philosophers, poets, theologians, and remarkable architectural monuments that retain their sacred significance to this day. Among these, the most prominent is the mausoleum of Hakim at-Termizi (755-869), located near the modern city of Termez, a major administrative center in the Surkhandarya region bordering Afghanistan.

Abu Abdullah Muhammad ibn Ali exerted such a profound influence on the intellectual and spiritual lives of his Muslim contemporaries that, at the end of his arduous earthly journey, his admiring disciples bestowed upon him the title of al-Hakim at-Termizi—”The Sage of Termez.” By the time of his birth, a mysterious shrine already existed near ancient Termez, which Islamic tradition associated with the name of Dhul-Kifl—the biblical prophet Elijah. Scholars believe that the name Dhul-Kifl in Islam encompasses the Old Testament prophets Elijah, Hosea, and Zechariah. Initially, the cult of Dhul-Kifl, brought to Central Asia by the Arabs, took root in Kelif and was later transferred to an island near Termez, which became known as Aral-Paygambar (The Island of the Prophet).

According to local legend, a holy man who lived in the Kelif area (now in Turkmenistan) instructed his people to place his body in a chest and set it adrift on the Amu Darya after his death. When his followers fulfilled his wish, they were astonished to see the chest float upstream and come to rest in the middle of the river near Termez the next day. An island immediately began to rise from the river sand at that spot, and it was named Aral-Paygambar—The Island of the Prophet. Later, one of the commanders of the Muslim Caliph Abbas was buried with honors on the island. However, the solitary tomb erected over his grave among the reeds and sand dunes remained in the people’s memory as the mazar of Dhul-Kifl, the prophet Elijah.

The Arabs, who in the 7th century displaced the Iranian Sasanian kings from the lower reaches of the Amu Darya, encountered an extraordinarily rich cultural heritage from past eras. To successfully spread Islam, this heritage had to be overcome, and such a task was far from easy. For over five centuries, Bactria, part of the Kushan Empire, had been the ideological center of Buddhism, from which it spread across Asia via the Silk Road caravan routes, reaching as far as central China. Historical chronicles indicate that even under the Sasanians, who revived Zoroastrianism in the homeland of the legendary prophet Zarathustra, dozens of Buddhist sanctuaries housing thousands of monks and novices operated near Termez alongside the fire temples of the Zoroastrians. Moreover, among the common people, ancient customs related to the veneration of natural elements, such as Oakhsho—the river god of the Amu Darya—continued to thrive.

As in many other regions of Central Asia that had been civilized since ancient times, the conversion of the local population to Islam was achieved not only through preaching and the imposition of taxes on non-believers. Cults emerged in traditional places of worship, reconnected with the names or deeds of Muslim ascetics. While the monotheistic canon of Islam permits worship only of Allah and forbids pilgrimages to any sites other than the sacred Kaaba in Mecca, local cultic practices somewhat contradicted this canon. However, it was here that such a contradiction was first resolved at the level of official theology. Much of the credit for this belongs to Hakim at-Termizi, who developed a coherent philosophical doctrine on the degrees and properties of divine grace that Muslim mystics, ascetics, or martyrs for the faith could attain.

From a young age, the future “Sage of Termez” possessed exceptional religious zeal, inseparable from a thirst for knowledge of the world. He began studying the Quran and Islamic theology at the age of eight and received a traditional education for his time very early. At 28, he managed to perform the Hajj to Mecca. On his pilgrimage journey, which passed through Khorasan in Iran and Baghdad, he met with the most prominent Sufi teachers—Abu Turab an-Nakhshabi, Yahya al-Jalla, and Ahmad ibn Hadrawayhi.

Upon returning to Termez, Muhammad ibn Ali withdrew from prying eyes into the surrounding desert hills to devote himself to asceticism and mystical practices. His piety and relentless spiritual quests earned him deep respect and a desire to emulate him among his devout peers, resulting in a group of devoted disciples gathering around him. However, his discussions of the special grace that the Almighty could bestow upon those who seek knowledge of the truth understandably irritated the religious authorities. At the time, the attitude of orthodox Muslim clergy toward Sufism was generally quite wary. Under the threat of trial, the voluntary hermit had to leave Termez, first for neighboring Balkh in northern Afghanistan and then for Nishapur—an ancient city in western Khorasan, Iran, which later also became a refuge for the famous Sufi mystic and poet Omar Khayyam.

Only late in life, after gaining widespread fame for his theological writings and personal righteousness, did Hakim at-Termizi return to his homeland. By then, he was known throughout the Muslim world as the author of treatises such as Ilal ash-Sharia and Khatm al-Awliya, which explained the deeper meaning of Islamic rituals and the role of saints marked by divine grace. Additionally, at-Termizi became the first compiler of a collection of biographies of great Sufi teachers and the author of around 80 works exploring the significance of mystical practices and various states of the soul and spirit achieved on the Sufi path.

In his treatises, at-Termizi asserted that the highest knowledge accessible to humans is mystical ma’rifa (wisdom), which is not directly linked to rational thinking but is an infinite mercy bestowed by Allah upon His chosen ones. Such wisdom cannot be attained through book learning or scholarly discussions. Ordinary knowledge, ‘ilm, is limited to the correct interpretation of Islamic law. Ma’rifa is accessible only to prophets and Sufi saints (awliya), not to ordinary people. Thus, at-Termizi provided a theological justification for ordinary believers to seek help from Sufi teachers and venerate places associated with their earthly lives.

The mausoleum of Hakim at-Termizi, who is believed to have died in 869, was built a century after his death on the northwestern outskirts of old Termez, near a steep cliff on the banks of the Amu Darya. Archaeologists suggest that a Buddhist temple from the Kushan Empire may have previously stood on this site. Over the centuries, the architectural complex underwent numerous restorations and reconstructions. According to inscriptions on the portal, additions to the original tomb were made in 1389-1390. In the late 14th century, when the Surkhandarya region became part of Timur’s empire, a majestic white marble tombstone was erected over the saint’s grave. It is believed that among the inscriptions on this tombstone are the words of Hakim at-Termizi himself, which read: “I did not compose a single letter with premeditated intent, but when times of hardship and distress befell me, I found solace in my writings.” In the early 15th century, during the reign of Khalil Sultan, a khanqah—a shelter for wandering dervishes—was built near the mausoleum. In the 19th century, the main mausoleum building with its four domes was demolished and rebuilt. Another restoration and beautification of the entire site was carried out in 2009, coinciding with UNESCO’s decision to celebrate the 2500th anniversary of Termez.

Today, the memorial complex of Hakim at-Termizi is a compact and picturesque structure. Its current appearance no longer strongly evokes the distant times in which the legendary Sufi sage lived. However, in the folk Islam of Central Asian countries, it is not the architectural structures that are considered sacred, but the place of worship itself, which is continually renewed and adorned by new generations of local residents. Despite the site’s proximity to the turbulent border with Afghanistan, the Uzbek authorities do not hinder the numerous pilgrims and foreign tourists from visiting the mausoleum and, moreover, ensure their comfort. Here, folk tradition does not conflict with the ambitious aspirations of secular authorities, who use the spiritual authority of Hakim at-Termizi and other popular Sufi teachers, such as Baha-ud-Din Naqshband and Khoja Ahrar, for ideological purposes.

Near the mausoleum of Hakim at-Termizi, the entrance to an underground chamber has been preserved. According to legend, the saint’s followers, who formed a mystical order known as Hakimiya or Haqiqiya—”The Friends of Truth”—would retreat into its depths for ascetic practices. Not far from the mausoleum, the steep clay hills of the ancient settlement of Kara-Tepe can be seen. Archaeologists believe that within these hills lie the underground cells and galleries of a Buddhist monastery, which, according to some sources, continued to function until the mid-7th century. Could the young Sufi sage have encountered any of the surviving guardians of knowledge from this cave temple? This remains a mystery for historians, and Islamic spiritual tradition does not even consider such a possibility.