The territory of modern-day Azerbaijan has been inhabited by humans since ancient times. Evidence of this can be found in various archaeological sites, such as the Azykh Cave in Nagorno-Karabakh, as well as in Garaaja and the Gobustan National Park. These traces of early human presence date back between 800,000 and 10,000 to 12,000 years.
The earliest states formed on the land that would later become Azerbaijan were Manna and the Scythian Kingdom, flourishing between the 10th and 7th centuries BCE. Subsequently, conquerors from the Median Empire arrived, followed by rulers from the Achaemenid dynasty of ancient Persia. Ancient historians referred to this region as Little Media, highlighting its historical roots.
By the beginning of the Common Era, the eastern part of modern Azerbaijan and southern Dagestan united to form the state of Caucasian Albania, established by local tribes that had first emerged in the 4th century BCE. These tribes, united as the Albanians, became a formidable force and the progenitors of many peoples, including the modern-day Lezgins of Dagestan, who inherited both their language and ethnic identity from Caucasian Albania. By the start of our era, they had established their own territory and military, complete with cavalry for its defense.
The religion of the Albanians centered around local cults, nature worship, and celestial deities, alongside the Zoroastrianism that spread from Media. Followers of this ancient philosophy lived for many centuries in the eastern regions, particularly around Baku, where one can still find remnants of their sacred sites today.
In conjunction with their religious practices, the Albanians developed a sense of statehood. Ancient historians noted that by the 2nd century CE, Albania boasted around 30 fortified settlements. The capital of this kingdom was the city of Kabala, located in modern-day Gabalinsky District of Azerbaijan. The independence of this state was compromised in the 1st century CE when the Romans invaded the Caucasus, with Pompey’s legions subjugating the Caspian coast and establishing Albania as a Roman colony.
Simultaneously, in the southwest, the state of Greater Armenia was emerging. Under the leadership of capable generals, Armenia quickly expanded its territories across the Armenian Highlands and the Lesser Caucasus, taking lands previously held by the Scythians and Albanians. Ancient scholars described these regions as predominantly Armenian-speaking.
However, during that era, linguistic affiliation was of little concern to the people; the focus was primarily on statehood and later on religion. It is believed that the Armenians were the first to introduce Christianity to these lands, with the Armenian kingdom adopting the Christian faith at the state level and setting an example for others. According to chronicles, the Albanian king Urnayr was baptized in Armenia by Saint Gregory the Illuminator.
During this period, the Albanian script emerged. However, by the early Middle Ages, Albania began to disintegrate due to invasions by nomadic tribes, including the Huns and Khazars, as well as Iranian influences and incursions from the Arab Caliphate. This fragmentation was exacerbated by the arrival of Islam in the region.
Between 387 and 651 CE, the territories of present-day Azerbaijan became a battleground for the interests of the Sasanian dynasty of Persia and later the Arab Caliphate. The Arabs brought Islam to the region, which gradually supplanted Christianity and remains the official religion of the state today.
Frequent warfare ensued until the Arabs established dominance in the region. Many Arab families and entire tribes were relocated here by decree of the caliphs or of their own volition. The mid-7th century marked a period of extensive Arab conquests in the South Caucasus. The Arabs became the ruling class, and many local princes acknowledged the authority of the conquerors. Under Arab rule, the population continued to speak their native languages and dialects, while Islam became the predominant religion.
Typically, in conquered territories, the local populace was subjected to taxes, and local agreements were made regarding taxation. The fragmentation of interests within the Caliphate led to the emergence of several small principalities, with the Shirvanshahs kingdom becoming the most influential.
The term Shirvanshahs is used in historical literature to refer to the rulers of the Shirvan kingdom. This medieval state was considered one of the largest and most prosperous in the Caucasus, and historians claim that “the land of Shirvan extends from the banks of the Kura River to Derbent.“
Shirvan has a distinct history dating back to 861 CE, reaching its peak during the mid-14th century under Shirvanshah Ibrahim. The first capital was located in the city of Shamakhi, while the second was established in Baku.
The founder of the first dynasty of Shirvanshahs was Yazid ibn Mazyad, an Arab governor of Armenia, Azerbaijan, Shirvan, and Derbent. His successors, taking advantage of the weakening central authority, declared Shirvan their hereditary domain and adopted the title of Shirvanshahs in 861 CE.
The 10th and 11th centuries were marked by battles, as the Shirvanshahs’ forces had to fend off incursions from the north by the Rus and Alans, while also expanding their territories by conquering regions such as Gabala and competing for maritime dominance with Derbent. The most devastating threat came from the east with the rise of the Seljuk Turks, whose brief period of dominance is noted in history as the Seljuk Sultanate’s rule over Shirvan.
In 1191, Shirvanshah Ahsitan I made a significant decision to move the capital to Baku for the first time. The 12th and 13th centuries are remembered as an era of remarkable architectural achievements. Defensive towers, encircling the coastline and approaches to the new capital, Baku, alongside fortress walls, caravanserais, mosques, and palaces, can still be seen across the Absheron Peninsula today. The relocation of the capital was strategically advantageous, as Baku’s natural harbor offered better protection during attacks, while Shamakhi, having suffered from earthquakes, was more vulnerable.
Early in the 12th century, Shirvanshah Minuchir III ordered the construction of a defensive wall around Baku, as inscribed on ancient stones. During this time, the Maiden Tower, known as Giz Galasi, is believed to have been built as a defensive structure. By the 12th century, Baku transformed into a well-fortified and prosperous city.
The construction of fortification towers in Shirvan held significant political importance, showcasing the state’s status and safeguarding its borders from invaders. Commemorative plaques often adorned the stones of these monuments, bearing the names of the Shirvanshahs who erected them and extolling their numerous grand titles. By the height of the medieval period, the Shirvanshahs were firmly established in Baku.
Under Shirvanshah Fariburz III in the mid-13th century, the construction of the Baku Fortress was completed, marking the zenith of the Shirvanshah empire, which continued until the Mongol invasions. The Mongols captured and completely devastated Shamakhi, leading to widespread destruction throughout the kingdom. Their brutal campaigns annihilated everything in their path, forcing the few survivors to seek refuge in the mountains.
The cities and settlements of Shirvan fell to the Mongols, who made Shirvanshah Fariburz their vassal. However, Baku remained unconquered; its formidable citadel preserved the city from devastation. Only after the Mongols fully conquered the country did the capital eventually fall.
Following the disintegration of the Mongol Empire, Shirvan became part of the Iranian state, and Shirvanshah Ibrahim I allied with Tamerlane, receiving Derbent as a reward for his assistance. This ruler also annexed Ganja and parts of Karabakh to Shirvan, but this expansion was short-lived as he was defeated by the forces of Kara Yusuf, the ruler of the newly established Kara Koyunlu state. However, a more formidable adversary loomed on the horizon.
By the late 15th century, the Safavid dynasty of Iran emerged as a serious competitor to the Shirvanshahs. In the autumn of 1500, Sheikh Ismail launched a campaign against the Shirvanshahs, capturing Shamakhi and decisively defeating their forces. His next target was Baku, where the treasures of the Shirvanshahs were plundered.
The last stronghold, Derbent, fell after a prolonged siege. By 1539, the execution of the last Shirvanshah marked the end of the dynasty, and Shirvan was incorporated into the Safavid state.
According to scholars, by the end of the 15th century, the formation of the Azerbaijani ethnic identity was complete—a rich blend of Turks, local tribes, Albanians, and Iranians, along with ancient Medes and Scythians. By the 15th century, a distinct Azerbaijani culture emerged, particularly in literature, while still retaining elements reminiscent of Arab and Iranian cultures. Thus, Azerbaijan and the Arab world were intertwined not only through religion but also through shared cultural and historical foundations.
During this era, the territory of modern Azerbaijan fell under the rule of the Safavid dynasty of Iran. This Iranian royal family governed the region for nearly 250 years, adopting the title of Shah of Azerbaijan. However, by the 15th century, a new formidable power emerged on the world stage—the Ottoman Empire. Over the course of two centuries, conflicts erupted between the Turks and Persians over control of the Caucasus, drawing Azerbaijan into the fray. Eventually, the Russian army also entered the conflict, with imperial orders sending troops to Baku in an attempt to seize control of the Caspian Sea.
The decline of the Safavid Empire began with the invasion of Afghan forces, who captured Isfahan in 1722. Following this, the Russian army landed in Baku, and after a brief siege, occupied the city. The Treaty of Constantinople, signed in 1724 between Russia and the Ottoman Empire, granted Russia control over the Caspian territories, including Baku and Lankaran.
However, the Russian flag did not fly over Baku for long. In 1735, in a bid to find an ally against the Ottoman Empire, Russia ceded the Caspian territories of Derbent and Baku back to Persia, restoring Iranian authority over Azerbaijan.
Iran’s influence waned significantly with the death of Nadir Shah, a talented and visionary military leader. The weakening of central power led to the fragmentation of the state into separate khanates, each ruled by Turkic families. The Karabakh, Sheki, Shirvan, Baku, and other khanates endured in Azerbaijan until the early 19th century.
By this time, the Russian Empire had expanded its territories to include the Karabakh, Sheki, and Ganja khanates, with Baku being added later. Following the Russo-Persian War of 1826-1828, Russia annexed the remaining territories, establishing its borders along the Arax River.
This period marked the dawn of technological progress, notably with the construction of a railway from Tbilisi to Baku, which played a crucial role in the region’s development. By 1900, the Transcaucasian Railway was integrated into the broader Russian network, facilitating trade and transportation.
The maritime trade routes also flourished, significantly advancing the oil industry, which was seen as the region’s golden opportunity. In 1827, oil production reached an industrial level for the first time, with drilling rigs established and steam engines utilized. The prospect of high profits attracted both Russian and Western investors to Baku, one of the most notable being Alfred Nobel.
By 1901, oil extraction from Baku wells accounted for approximately 50% of the world’s total oil production. This period of economic prosperity continued until February 1917, when the Russian Revolution erupted.
This was a time of political upheaval. On one hand, the Provisional Government established a special Transcaucasian Committee in Tbilisi to manage the region, while on the other, the Baku Soviet sought to seize power. In the autumn of 1917, the Baku Soviet declared Soviet authority in the city.
The Baku Bolsheviks formed armed detachments to extend their influence to other areas of the republic. A year later, the Transcaucasian Republic, comprising Armenia, Georgia, and Azerbaijan, disintegrated into three separate states.
On May 27, 1918, the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic was established, marking the first instance of Azerbaijani statehood in history. Before this, the Azerbaijani people had not possessed their own governing structure. The city of Ganja was chosen as the first capital, and the Azerbaijani language was officially declared the state language. This status continued until mid-1920, when the Red Army entered Baku.
Soviet power quickly took hold across Azerbaijan. By 1936, Azerbaijan became a part of the USSR as a union republic. Political shifts occurred with the onset of perestroika, alongside the tumultuous events of the 1990s, which included violent conflicts between Azerbaijanis and Armenians and widespread dissatisfaction with the ruling authorities.
In 1991, the Supreme Council of Azerbaijan adopted a declaration restoring the country’s independence. Following the collapse of the USSR, the simmering Armenian-Azerbaijani conflict erupted into full-scale war, lasting for two years. After a series of setbacks for the Azerbaijani army in Nagorno-Karabakh, the president was compelled to resign in 1992, leading to a period of instability and political turmoil in Azerbaijan. The country was grappling with not only the ramifications of the war but also economic hardships and a lack of coherent governance.
In 1993, a significant turning point occurred when Heydar Aliyev, a former leader of the Azerbaijani Soviet Socialist Republic and a prominent figure in Soviet politics, returned to power. Initially, he was elected Chairman of the Supreme Council, but soon he became the President of Azerbaijan. His leadership marked the beginning of a new era aimed at stabilizing the country and fostering economic growth.
Under Heydar Aliyev’s administration, Azerbaijan adopted a pragmatic approach towards its foreign relations, particularly with neighboring countries and major powers like Russia and the United States. Aliyev’s government focused on attracting foreign investment, particularly in the oil and gas sectors, which were crucial for the nation’s economic revival. The signing of the “Contract of the Century” in 1994 with a consortium of international oil companies, including BP and Amoco, was a landmark event, setting the stage for Azerbaijan to become a key player in global energy markets.
The development of the Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan (BTC) pipeline, which transported oil from the Caspian Sea to the Mediterranean, further solidified Azerbaijan’s position as a significant energy supplier. This project not only boosted the economy but also enhanced Azerbaijan’s geopolitical significance, providing it with leverage in regional politics.
Despite the economic progress, Azerbaijan faced ongoing challenges, particularly the unresolved conflict over Nagorno-Karabakh. The region, predominantly populated by ethnic Armenians, declared independence from Azerbaijan in the early 1990s, leading to a protracted and bloody conflict. The war resulted in significant territorial losses for Azerbaijan and created a large number of internally displaced persons (IDPs).
The conflict remained a central issue in Azerbaijani politics and society, influencing national identity and foreign policy. Efforts for a peaceful resolution were often complicated by external factors, including the involvement of Armenia and the geopolitical interests of Russia and Turkey.
In 2003, after Heydar Aliyev’s death, his son Ilham Aliyev was elected president. Ilham Aliyev continued his father’s policies, focusing on economic development and maintaining stability. His administration faced criticism regarding human rights issues and political freedoms, with numerous reports of crackdowns on dissent and opposition.
However, the government also emphasized modernization and infrastructure development, leading to significant advancements in urban areas, particularly in Baku. The capital transformed into a vibrant city with modern architecture, luxury hotels, and cultural landmarks, including the iconic Flame Towers and the Heydar Aliyev Center, designed by the renowned architect Zaha Hadid.
In recent years, Azerbaijan has sought to diversify its economy beyond oil and gas, investing in sectors such as tourism, information technology, and agriculture. The government has also emphasized the importance of cultural heritage and tourism, promoting sites like the Old City of Baku, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, and the ancient petroglyphs of Gobustan.
In late 2020, the large-scale Second Nagorno-Karabakh War resulted in thousands of casualties and a significant Azerbaijani victory that finally led to the resolvement of The Nagorno-Karabakh conflict. An armistice was established by a tripartite ceasefire agreement on November 10, resulting in Azerbaijan regaining all of the occupied territories surrounding Nagorno-Karabakh as well as capturing one-third of Nagorno-Karabakh itself. Ceasefire violations in Nagorno-Karabakh and on the Armenian–Azerbaijani border continued following the 2020 war. Azerbaijan began blockading Nagorno-Karabakh in December 2022, and launched a large-scale military offensive in September 2023, resulting in a ceasefire agreement. Most ethnic Armenians fled, and Artsakh was officially dissolved on 1 January 2024.
As Azerbaijan continues to navigate its path forward, it faces the dual challenge of fostering economic growth while addressing external threats. Country’s strategic location position makes it a vital player in Eurasian geopolitics, and its future trajectory will likely be shaped by both domestic policies and international relations.