History of Kyrgyzstan

Modern Kyrgyz people represent a complex ethnogenesis, blending the ancient Kyrgyz of Eastern Tien Shan and the Minusinsk Basin, medieval Turkic-Muslim tribes from the pre-Mongol period, Kipchak tribes, and Mongol clans from Mogolistan. Their national epic, «Manas,» narrates the origins and history of the Kyrgyz people.

Historically, Kyrgyzstan has played a crucial role as a hub in Central Asia, positioned at the crossroads of major trade routes and powerful empires. Its location between Chinese, Persian, Arab, Indian, Turkic, and Russian empires has significantly influenced the history, cultures, and religions of numerous peoples and travelers who passed through.

Ancient Kyrgyzstan The first known inhabitants of modern Kyrgyzstan date back to the early Paleolithic era. Stone tools found in the Central Tien Shan region were crafted around 300,000 years ago. Later, the inhabitants of these lands primarily engaged in animal husbandry. The nomadic tribes of Central Asia that settled in the region during the middle of the first millennium BCE were collectively known as the Saka, or Scythians in ancient Greek sources. These nomads occupied a vast expanse from the mountains of present-day Mongolia to the Danube and Dnieper rivers.

In Kyrgyzstan, the Saka tribes were succeeded by the Usun, who established themselves in the Seven Rivers region and Central Tien Shan, forming one of the world’s oldest states. The Usun had an alliance with the Han Empire of China, with whom they fought against the nomadic Xiongnu, the very people for whom the Great Wall of China was built. The southern territories of Kyrgyzstan were part of another Central Asian state, Davan, which occupied the fertile lands of the Fergana Valley. Ancient Persian sources referred to this state as Parkana, describing it as densely populated. Davan was particularly renowned for its horses, which were highly coveted by the Han Empire. From 104–99 BCE, Davan successfully defended its independence during a series of wars.

Many early inhabitants of the region practiced Tengrism, an ancient monotheistic faith centered on nature. Prior to the Battle of Talas in 751 CE, Central Asia was predominantly Buddhist, though many other religions and cultures had a presence due to the Silk Road’s influence. The battle, fought between the Tang dynasty of China and the Arab Abbasid Caliphate, marked a significant turning point, leading to the spread of Islam across the region. The Karakhanid dynasty, which ruled from the 9th to 11th centuries, was one of the first Muslim states in the area, blending Turkic traditions with Islamic practices. The legacy of the Karakhanids includes structures like the Burana Tower, all that remains of their capital Balasagun, and the mausoleums in Uzgen.

Early Middle Ages In the 6th century CE, nomadic Turkic tribes began settling in the lands of present-day Kyrgyzstan. By the mid-6th century, they had established the Turkic Khaganate, one of the largest empires in history. By the 570s, the Khaganate stretched from the Greater Khingan Mountains in northeastern China to the North Caucasus, and from the upper Yenisei River to the Amu Darya.

In the early 7th century, the Turkic Khaganate was divided into Eastern and Western Khaganates, with Kyrgyzstan falling under the larger and more expansive Western Turkic Khaganate. The city of Suyab, located in today’s Chuy region, became the political and trading center. The Western Turkic Khaganate lasted for a century, followed by the rise of the Turgesh Khaganate in the region, though it survived for less than fifty years. In 746, the Karluks invaded and ruled the lands of the Tien Shan and Seven Rivers region for two centuries.

In the 13th century, as the Mongol conquests swept across Asia, the ancestors of the modern Kyrgyz migrated from the Yenisei River in Siberia to their present homeland in the Tian Shan Mountains. The region remained under Mongol control for several centuries, influenced by various groups such as the Kalmyks, Oirats, and Dzungars, depending on the prevailing power dynamics.

By the early 16th century, the Kyrgyz and Kazakhs had firmly established themselves in their current territories. They formed a military alliance to counter the threats posed by the Shaybanids, the Oirat, and the Yarkand Khanates. Until the mid-17th century, the Kyrgyz recognized the Kazakh khans as their supreme rulers, often referred to in historical sources as «the Kazakh and Kyrgyz Khan.»

After the collapse of Mogolistan, the Kyrgyz attempted to establish their own state. Although Mogol feudal lords continued to suppress uprisings, their influence waned in Kashgar. Between 1525 and 1526, the Kyrgyz, supported by Kazakh Khan Takhir, successfully defended against neighboring states. Upon Takhir’s death, his brother, Buidash, became the new Kyrgyz Khan. Buidash expanded the army and established alliances with Kazakh leaders. Despite several victories over neighboring khanates, Buidash’s forces were ultimately defeated by the Tashkent ruler, Dervish Khan. Subsequent Kyrgyz rulers continued their alliance with the Kazakhs.

The rulers of the Dzungar Khanate viewed the Kyrgyz and Kazakhs as a unified military and political entity. In the early 18th century, the Dzungar expansion into the lands of both peoples led to significant migrations. Many Kyrgyz were forced to move to the Fergana Valley, while the Kazakhs relocated to Samarkand and Bukhara. Those Kyrgyz who remained near Lake Issyk-Kul were compelled to acknowledge Dzungar authority, marking this period as one of the most challenging in Kyrgyz history.

By the mid-18th century, the Dzungar Khanate, once a formidable nomadic power, began to decline. The khanate was ultimately dismantled by the Qing Dynasty of China. Following the fall of the Dzungar Khanate, the Kyrgyz began to return to their original homelands in the Central and Eastern Tian Shan, assimilating with the remaining Dzungars.

In the 18th century, as the Qing Dynasty reached its zenith and the Oirats became a vassal state, the Khanate of Kokand emerged as a dominant force in the early 1700s, bringing Kyrgyzstan under its rule. During this era, the region was a crucial stop on the Silk Road. Historical sites such as the 15th-century stone caravanserai, Tash Rabat, in Naryn Province, reflect its past significance. The area’s languages and cultures bear influences from numerous lands, shaped by the merchants and travelers who passed through. Although the Epic of Manas is believed to be older, its events closely align with the history of the 16th and 17th centuries.

The 19th century saw Central Asia at the heart of the «Great Game» of imperial expansion, contested by Russia from the north and Great Britain from the south. During this time, the Khanate of Kokand weakened, and regional rulers gained more power. In 1862, following the murder of Alimbek Datka, the ruler of the Alai (present-day southern Kyrgyzstan), his wife Kurmanjan, a formidable leader, took charge. As Russian influence grew, Kurmanjan Datka advocated for a peaceful transition, leading to the annexation of the Alai region by the Russian Empire in 1867. A 2014 film highlights her life and the breathtaking landscapes of Kyrgyzstan, marking an important chapter in the country’s history.

Northern Kyrgyzstan began integrating into the Russian Empire in the mid-19th century, as the Khanate of Kokand became mired in intrigue and conflict. The process of annexation began in 1855 when the Bughu tribe accepted Russian sovereignty. By 1863, Colonel Chernyaev’s troops had secured Northern Kyrgyzstan from the Kokand Khanate. The Fergana Valley became part of the Russian Empire by 1876, and these regions were incorporated into the Turkestan General Governorship as the Fergana and Semirechensk provinces.

Russian settlement intensified in the 20th century with the advent of railroads. The pre-revolutionary period saw uprisings, including one in the Fergana Valley in 1898 by anti-colonial groups and another in 1916, known as the Turkestan uprising, which was violently suppressed. Surviving rebels fled to China.

Following the October Revolution of 1917 and the formation of the Soviet Union, Turkestan was reorganized into oblasts based on ethnicity. Due to the nomadic lifestyle and diverse identities, borders were fluid, and many populations, such as the large Uzbek community in southern Kyrgyzstan, ended up outside their designated nations. The Kara-Kirghiz Autonomous Oblast was established in 1924, later replaced by the Kirghiz Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic in 1926. In 1936, the Kirghiz Soviet Socialist Republic was officially formed, governed by the Kyrgyz branch of the Communist Party from the capital, Frunze, now Bishkek. Notable figures from Soviet Kyrgyzstan include Chingiz Aitmatov, an influential politician, diplomat, and writer.

On August 31, 1991, Kyrgyzstan declared its independence from the Soviet Union. Askar Akayev, who had been president since 1990, became the first leader of the new republic. He served until the Tulip Revolution of 2005, which led to political instability and the ousting of his successor, Kurmanbek Bakiyev. Ethnic tensions in Osh in 2010 mirrored previous riots, but Roza Otunbayeva, interim president and one of the few female leaders in a Muslim-majority country, managed a peaceful transfer of power to Almazbek Atambayev in 2011. Since then, Kyrgyzstan has maintained relative stability and hosted two World Nomad Games in 2014 and 2016.