Parthian Fortresses of Ancient Nisa

During this period, Nisa underwent significant development. It was no longer a small settlement but the main city of the Parthian region, serving as the royal residence. In the 2nd and 1st centuries BCE, the Parthian state experienced a period of military success and political power. Under Mithridates II, Parthian territories extended as far as Syria in the west and India in the east, positioning Parthia as a powerful rival to Rome.

The Parthian kings maintained a special connection to the Parthian region and Nisa, where their power first took root. The royal family was ceremonially buried here, and a special royal fortress, known as Mithradatkirt, was constructed on the city’s outskirts during the reign of Mithridates I (171-138 BCE). This fortress, located on a natural hill and constructed using packed clay (pakhsa), was considered impregnable by the standards of ancient siege warfare. The Parthian kings could feel completely secure within its walls, protected from both external enemies and internal uprisings. Inside the fortress, numerous buildings were constructed, providing a luxurious and comfortable life for the royal family.

Historical sources reveal that the dynasty’s founder, Arsaces, was deified by his descendants. The Arsacid dynasty, while adopting Greek customs and fashions, proudly displayed their Hellenic affinities on their coinage, often inscribing the title «Philhellene,» meaning «lover of the Greeks.» Among the discoveries in the northern complex of Old Nisa were several imported items, including magnificent marble statues from the Eastern Hellenistic school of the 2nd century BCE.

Although the Parthian rulers eventually moved their capital to Asia Minor, they continued to hold Old Nisa in high regard, as it housed the graves of the Arsacid family. The Parthian kings would visit Nisa on major holidays to perform sacrifices and other religious ceremonies.

In 226 CE, the Parthian Empire came to an end, and Ardashir, the former governor of the Arsacids, established a new state under the Sassanid dynasty. In an effort to erase the memory of the Parthian rulers, Ardashir ordered the destruction of Old Nisa. The ancestral seat of the Arsacids was looted and largely reduced to ruins. However, some items were left behind, lost, or discarded by the looters, and even these remnants provide evidence of the exceptional variety and value of the stored inventory. Despite this, the city of Nisa continued to exist.

The city saw a revival several centuries later, in 651 CE, when it became part of the Arab Caliphate. However, it never regained its former power as a fortified city.

In the 10th century, the city was taken over by the Samanid dynasty. In 992 CE, the Samanid ruler Nuh II gifted Nisa to the Emir of Gurganj. By 996 CE, the city belonged to Mamun, the ruler of Khwarazm.

During the medieval period, Nisa was the main city of the region of the same name, which Arab geographers of the 10th century referred to as the «granary of Khorasan.» The area was known for its abundant grain production. Numerous vegetable gardens were established near the city and surrounding villages, and Nisa was particularly famous for its eggplants in the Middle Ages. The city also became a center of craftsmanship, particularly in the suburbs, which were surrounded by their own walls. Nisa’s artisans produced a wide range of high-quality goods, including pottery—bowls, dishes, and jugs decorated with bright, colorful patterns, often featuring bird motifs. The city also produced fine glassware, primarily used for storing perfumes and medicines, and bronze items adorned with engravings. Cotton and silk fabrics made in Nisa were exported far beyond the region.

In 1017 CE, Nisa was annexed by the Ghaznavid dynasty, and in 1035 CE, it became part of the Seljuk Sultanate. During the Seljuk period, a vast cemetery stretched at the foothills of the Kopetdag Mountains, where an out-of-town mosque, the Namazgah, was located. The city itself was well-fortified at this time, with powerful walls and numerous towers built on the remnants of the Parthian ramparts. According to the historian Nesawi, a native of Nisa, writing in the early 13th century, «Nisa was one of the most remarkable fortresses built on hills. It was vast, capable of housing a large population, and everyone in the city, whether rich or poor, had a home there. In the center of the city stood another fortress for the rulers, higher than the rest, with water flowing from it to the lower parts of the city…»

In the 12th century, Nisa came under the control of the Anushteginids, the new dynasty of Khwarazmshahs. The city remained in their hands until it was conquered by the Mongols in 1220 CE.

Today, the ruins of Mithradatkirt, with its ancient fortifications, only speak of their former glory through archaeological finds. These include weapons—iron armor, large shields (one decorated with eagle figures), and arrows; luxurious textiles with gold embellishments; remnants of the royal throne carved from ivory; various household items—clay flasks, amphorae, glass goblets, and vials; and particularly distinctive horn-shaped vessels known as rhytons, along with unique documents from the 2nd and 1st centuries BCE, written with brushes on shards of pottery, and exquisite white marble sculptures.

The rhytons, carved from elephant tusks, have a curved shape resembling a large horn, often ending with the figure of a fantastical creature (a winged human-bull, a winged human-horse centaur, a winged lion-griffin, and others). The upper, flaring part of the rhyton is adorned with a relief frieze. The images depicted are varied: one can see Hellenistic gods, including Zeus, Hera, Athena, Poseidon, and others, as well as various Bacchic scenes involving dances and rituals with sacrificial animals, and the Muses, protectors of learning, holding folding tablets known as diptychs. These large rhytons (some with a capacity of 2 to 3 liters) were not intended for everyday use but were used for ritual libations in honor of Parthian and Greek gods.

Today, both of these ancient sites form the core of the State Historical and Cultural Reserve «Nisa,» and in 2007, they were included in the UNESCO World Heritage List.