Sultan-bobo

In the northwest of Uzbekistan, between the ancient agricultural oasis of Khorezm and the Kyzylkum Desert, along the right bank of the Amu Darya River, stretches the low mountain range of Karatau, or the Black Mountains. These mountains are called “black” due to the unusual coloration of the local rock formations. The ridge closest to the river is known as Sultanuizdag or Sultan Uwais, named after the Muslim ascetic Uwais ibn Amir al-Qarani, whose sanctuary is located in the foothills of Sultan-Bobo. However, the mountains themselves are also revered as sacred by the local population. Before the arrival of Islam in Central Asia, this area was likely home to a major temple of Anahita, the Zoroastrian goddess of water and fertility, whose cult was so popular and powerful that remnants of its magical and shamanic rituals have survived to this day.

The mausoleum of Uwais al-Qarani in the Sultan-Bobo area of the Beruniy district of Karakalpakstan, according to archaeologists, was founded in the early 8th century, shortly after the Arab conquests. However, in the 13th century, during the Mongol invasions of Genghis Khan, it was completely destroyed. The cult structures in the surrounding necropolis were repeatedly restored and rebuilt over nearly three centuries—from the 17th century to the late 19th century. Interestingly, regardless of the sanctuary’s condition at any given time, the site has been continuously revered by the people, as it is attributed with numerous beneficial and even miraculous properties.

The central feature of the necropolis is a deep pond inhabited by sacred fish. The pond is fed by underground springs flowing from beneath the black rocks of the Sultan Uwais mountain range—said by locals to emerge “from beneath the feet of the saint.” The water in the pond is considered miraculous, believed to cleanse sins and cure many illnesses. The fish in the pond, as in other similar sanctuaries, are forbidden to catch or eat. Typically, such prohibitions can be explained rationally—often, these ponds are home to marinka fish (Schizothorax), whose innards are poisonous and inedible. However, in this case, the prohibition is purely cultic, as the pond is inhabited not by poisonous marinka but by carp (Cyprinus carpio).

Until the late 20th century, an extremely unusual ritual, contrary to Islamic norms, could be observed at the Sultan-Bobo sanctuary. Fish that died from drought or old age were wrapped in shrouds and buried in special graves, with a janaza prayer—a funeral prayer—recited over them. This practice may be an echo of the ancient cult of Anahita, for whom the fish in the pond were once considered sacred. However, Soviet ethnographer Gleb Snesarev (1910–1989), who described this ritual in detail in his monograph Relics of Pre-Islamic Beliefs and Rituals Among the Uzbeks of Khorezm, suggested that such practices might have an even older origin, dating back to totemistic beliefs.

The deep and winding stream flowing from the sacred pond serves as a navigational trail for female pilgrims seeking to overcome infertility. Along this difficult path, pilgrims often build arvokh uyi—houses for spirits—from stones, a practice inconsistent with Sharia but clearly indicative of pre-Islamic magical rituals. A few kilometers upstream from the pond lies a rocky gorge that pilgrims must visit. On its slopes, it is customary to build small stone pyramids. The largest of these pyramids, likely built in ancient times, are circled several times by pilgrims. This resembles the shamanic cult of obo—the worship of stones as “masters of the land”—which was widespread among the nomadic peoples of Eurasia before the arrival of Islam. In Southern Siberia, the Altai Mountains, Mongolia, and Buryatia, this cult was eventually adapted to the Tibetan Buddhism (Lamaism) practiced there.

Nearby is a revered site associated with the female cult of Ambar-ona. In the shezhere—the genealogical tree of Turkic nomads—Ambar-ona or Anbar-bibi is mentioned as a historical figure, the daughter of a tribal leader. She was first the wife of the Khorezmian Sufi teacher and poet Suleiman Bakyrgani, also known as Hakim-ata of the Yasawiyya order. After his death, she became the wife and assistant of his disciple, the famous Tashkent saint Zangi-ata. When her life ended, she was buried near Zangi-ata’s mausoleum outside Tashkent.

form. Here, the cult of Ambar-ona likely merges with the ancient worship of the goddess Anahita. According to Khorezmian legends, Ambar-ona was the first to teach women how to prepare sumalak—a ritual dish made from sprouted wheat grains, consumed during the celebration of Navruz, the spring equinox. Women pray to Ambar-ona for healing from infertility, as well as for the health of their unborn children and safe childbirth. During boat crossings of the Amu Darya, women drop bread and salt into the water to appease Ambar-ona. When Hubbi, the eldest son of Suleiman Bakyrgani, quarreled with his father and fled home, Ambar-ona pursued him, transforming into a white bird. However, Hubbi disappeared into the waters of the Amu Darya, where he became the patron of boatmen and fishermen, taming the fearsome aranglars—spirits of underwater currents, whirlpools, and floods. In the Sultan-Bobo area, a site is revered where, according to legend, Ambar-ona, wandering in search of her son, milked a wild goat that descended from the mountains. The limestone deposits on the black rock are said to be stains from the milk.

Rising above the Sultan-Bobo necropolis is a round hill crowned by the mausoleum of Chinar-Bobo, which pilgrims often visit before the mausoleum of Uwais al-Qarani. No details of this saint’s life are found in written sources or oral traditions, and his name literally means “Grandfather of the Chinar Tree.” This led Snesarev to believe that the ancient cult of Chinar-Bobo was also totemistic, related to the worship of trees, especially revered in arid and desert regions. Modern caretakers of the necropolis reluctantly explain that Chinar-Bobo was the spiritual mentor of Uwais al-Qarani, though this claim is difficult to reconcile with historical topography and chronology.

According to official Islamic history, Uwais ibn Amir ibn Juz ibn Malik ibn Amr al-Muradi was born in 625 in the village of Qaran in Yemen and worked as a shepherd in his youth. He never met the Prophet Muhammad but became a devout follower of Islam after meeting Ali ibn Abi Talib. At the age of 32, he died fighting in Ali’s army against Caliph Muawiya in the Battle of Siffin in Syria (his tomb in Raqqa was destroyed by ISIS in 2014). However, his followers in Khorezm reject the idea that the mausoleum in Sultan-Bobo is merely a symbolic visitation site (kadamgoh). Legend has it that after Uwais’s death, seven rulers from different lands vied for the honor of burying his remains. At dawn, however, the saint’s body mysteriously appeared in all seven biers sent for him. This legend, with its fantastical plot, contradicts Islamic burial rituals, which require the deceased to be buried before sunset, not transported thousands of kilometers. Another legend claims that Uwais not only was buried in multiple places simultaneously but also lived and acted in many places at once. “He would take a step and find himself in Yemen.”

Local legends link Uwais al-Qarani’s miracles to the very origin of the Karatau Mountains. When Uwais, tending his flocks, learned that the Prophet Muhammad had lost a tooth in the Battle of Uhud, he decided to lose a tooth as well. Not knowing which tooth Muhammad had lost, he knocked out all 32 of his own teeth. Another legend tells of the Battle of Siffin, where Uwais came to Ali’s aid by gathering 96 stones in the hem of his robe and hurling them at the enemy. Each stone felled countless foes, and when all the stones were thrown, the enemy forces were completely defeated. By the mid-2000s, the legend had evolved to claim that the Karatau Mountains themselves were formed from the teeth Uwais had thrown at his enemies. In a less fantastical version, the teeth are said to be the ancient obo in the gorge near the sanctuary.

Pilgrims recount that Sultan Uwais always walked barefoot, naked, and continuously cried, “Hu! Hu!”—Arabic for “He,” one of the names of Allah. Once, the Prophet’s companions—Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman, and Ali—brought Uwais a garment sent by Muhammad himself, who disapproved of excessive asceticism. Upon donning the cloak and cap, Uwais fell into ecstasy and immediately stood before the Almighty. According to legend, he struck himself with a stone and wept, pleading with God to grant him all sinners so he could guide them to the path of truth and save them from hell. However, God granted him only a third of all sinners.

This legend contradicts the norms of orthodox Islam, which forbid any form of dispute with God. However, it aligns with the extreme asceticism practiced by some Sufi orders in the early Middle Ages. According to ethnographer Snesarev, even during the Soviet era, the Sufi order of Uwaisiyya—one of the most mysterious in Central Asia—remained active in the Sultan-Bobo area. The order held in high regard not only the sheikhs but also the nazirs—children whose parents dedicated them to lifelong service at the sanctuary either before their birth or after a severe illness in infancy. These children were considered spiritual sons of Uwais al-Qarani himself.

Over the centuries, the mausoleum and the extensive necropolis have been expanded with numerous additions—mosques, guesthouses for pilgrims, kitchens, and spaces for sacrificial offerings. According to legend, Uwais al-Qarani has the power to control the local climate, alleviate droughts, regulate water levels in wells, increase harvests, and influence the fertility of livestock. People with various ailments, including congenital and mental illnesses, are often brought to his mausoleum, as it is believed he can heal them. Soviet ethnographers and religious scholars often noted that in Central Asia, Uwais al-Qarani, a Yemeni shepherd, also served as a special patron of camels and camel herding. In Turkmenistan, he is known as Weyis-baba, and in Kazakhstan, he is called Oysyl-Kara. In modern Uzbekistan, camel herding and the nomadic lifestyle have largely declined, making it difficult to assess this aspect of the saint’s role. Similarly, the cult of Hubbi, the patron of boatmen, has faded, as modern bridges across the Amu Darya have nearly replaced boat crossings, and the river itself has significantly shallowed due to the ecological catastrophe of the Aral Sea.

Nevertheless, the Sultan-Bobo sanctuary in the Karatau Mountains continues to function as a powerful regional cult center, attracting thousands of pilgrims. This enduring popularity can be attributed to the deep-rooted interest of the Khorezmian population in oral traditions and folk customs, many of which retain clear remnants of ancient magical rituals. The appeal of these practices is heightened by the daily struggles of the region’s less affluent communities, particularly farmers and herders, who often face circumstances they perceive as insurmountable, driving them to seek the protection and favor of mystical, otherworldly forces.

@ Andrey Kudryashov / “Fergana”