The history of Baku stretches back to the Paleolithic era, when ancient humans inhabited the Absheron Peninsula. During the transitional period from the Stone Age to the early Bronze Age, the first rock carvings appeared in the region, indicating a high level of development among local tribes.
Baku’s prominence began in antiquity, as evidenced by various archaeological discoveries. Many medieval structures in Icheri Sheher (the Old City) were built upon the foundations of ancient ruins, some of which remain unidentified to this day.
Initially, Baku emerged as a small fortified settlement by the sea, surrounded by a defensive wall and moat. By the beginning of the first millennium, it had developed into a well-established port city. During this time, Baku was under Roman rule, as indicated by an ancient Latin inscription at the base of Mount Biyuk-Dash.
In the early Middle Ages (5th to 12th centuries), Baku was part of the Shirvan region. Under the Sasanian Empire, Shirvan became an independent administrative unit. Later, when Azerbaijan fell under Arab conquest, this territory was known as the state of the Shirvanshahs, which included not only Baku but also cities like Shemakha, Derbent, and others across Azerbaijan.
By the 10th century, Baku transitioned from a small coastal fortress to a major trade and maritime port on the Caspian Sea. Like many other states within the Arab Caliphate, the Shirvanshah state enjoyed a degree of independence. The city faced several raids from the Rus, who plundered its wealth, although the overall history of Baku during this period remained relatively peaceful. One notable raid occurred in 1030 when Rus forces clashed with the troops of Shirvanshah Minuchir I ibn Yazid. Although the Shirvanshah was defeated and some territories were captured, the Rus were expelled from Baku within a year.
The 11th century marked the beginning of the Seljuk Turks’ military campaigns. They first attacked the city in 1066, and by the late 12th century, the Shirvanshah state, with Baku as its capital, fell under Seljuk control. During this period, fortifications were constructed around the city, many of which have survived to this day. According to historians of that era, Baku had become one of the most impregnable fortresses on the Caspian Sea, significantly enhancing its strategic importance.
In 1220, Azerbaijan faced an invasion by the Mongols, followed by a second incursion in 1231, which resulted in the subjugation of nearly all of Azerbaijan. Baku was the only city to offer prolonged and fierce resistance to the Mongols, but ultimately, its inhabitants were compelled to surrender.
Under Mongol rule, the Shirvanshah dynasty became vassals of the Mongol khans. The Caucasus region, conquered by the Mongols, was renamed the Sultanate, ruled by the Ilkhanid Mongol dynasty. Baku then became the winter residence of the Mongolian rulers.
After the disintegration of the Mongol state in the 14th century, the Shirvanshahs began their struggle for independence, which was finally achieved after the death of Amir Timur. For a century, Baku and the Shirvanshah state remained entirely free from foreign invaders. This period marked a new phase of prosperity for Baku, with the construction of the renowned Palace of the Shirvanshahs and extensive urban development, including caravanserais and bridges.
A new era of conquest began with the rise of the Safavid dynasty in Iran. In 1501, Shah Ismail Safavi captured Baku, incorporating its territories into Iran. As a result of ongoing conflicts between Iran and the Ottoman Empire, Baku changed hands multiple times, notably falling to the Ottomans in 1578, only to be recaptured by Iranian forces shortly thereafter.
Baku’s status as one of the largest trading ports on the Caspian Sea granted it significant strategic importance, drawing the interest of the Russian Empire. In the mid-18th century, the Baku Khanate was established, and in 1796, Russian troops first seized the city. Baku ultimately fell under the protection of the Russian Empire in 1805.
During this period, Baku began to develop its industrial sector. Factories were established, the first oil well was drilled in 1847, and foreign capital began to flow into the region. During the Soviet era, Baku became the capital of the Azerbaijan SSR, and following the dissolution of the Soviet Union, it emerged as the capital of independent Azerbaijan. Today, Baku stands as one of the most modern cities in the Caucasus, with a population exceeding 2 million people.