Historians and local historians of Uzbekistan still disagree on when and under what circumstances a very popular pilgrimage site appeared in ancient Samarkand. It is known as the mausoleum of the biblical prophet Daniel and is equally revered in three religions—Judaism, Islam, and Christianity.
According to the Bible, in 605 BC, the prophet Daniel, along with his fellow tribesmen, was taken captive from Israel by the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar II. At the Babylonian court, Daniel became famous for his piety, gift of prophecy, and ability to perform miracles. Daniel, known as Daniyar in Islam, lived to see the Persian king Cyrus free the Jews from Babylonian captivity. However, due to his advanced age, he could not return to his homeland and was buried with great honors in the city of Susa, near present-day Mosul in Iraq. Besides Mosul, mausoleums believed to contain the relics of Daniel also exist in Jerusalem and Istanbul. In Samarkand, the prophet’s mausoleum is located on the northeastern slope of the ancient Afrasiab settlement, on the banks of the Siab River, near a sacred spring.
Several legends surround the origin of the Samarkand mausoleum. One of them claims that the formidable commander Timur, during his military campaign in Asia Minor and Mesopotamia in 1397–1404, spent considerable effort besieging the city of Susa. His advisors told him that Susa was supposedly protected by the spiritual power emanating from the relics of the prophet Daniel. The commander then began negotiations with the besieged. He promised not to ravage the city or take prisoners into slavery if he was allowed to take a portion of the sacred relics of Daniel to Samarkand. Timur decided to take the prophet’s right hand, believing it would protect the capital of his empire as well as it had protected Susa.
It is worth noting that this legend contradicts the religious norms of orthodox Islam, which disapproves of the veneration of saints’ graves and considers the desecration of burial sites unacceptable. However, legends and ritual practices recorded in many revered places in Uzbekistan often deviate significantly from canonical norms. Be that as it may, some historians believe that Timur brought not the actual relics of the prophet Daniel from Susa, but only a handful of soil from his tomb, and ordered the mausoleum to be built as a symbol—in honor of his victorious military campaign.
This version also explains a later legend associated with this revered site. Inside the mausoleum, there is a symbolic marble sarcophagus over 10 meters long. In the 16th–18th centuries, pilgrims believed that the right hand of the prophet Daniel miraculously grew several centimeters each year. Supposedly, this is why the tombstone and the mausoleum itself had to be constantly enlarged, rebuilt with donations from pilgrims and devout townspeople. There is a folk tale that in the 19th century, the colonial administration of the Russian Empire suspected local clergy of fraudulent manipulations with the tombstone. The administration allegedly threatened the mullahs that if Daniel’s hand continued to grow, the cult complex on the banks of the Siab River would be closed to pilgrims or even destroyed. The threat worked, and the miraculous growth of the relics ceased.
However, this is most likely just a legend. Historical documents from the 19th century do not mention this conflict. The fact is that the Russian colonial administration in Turkestan treated the religion of the local population with great care, seeking to use customs and traditions to its advantage. Thus, the Russians were least interested in provoking religious unrest.
Returning to the sarcophagus, its unusually large size can be explained by the fact that Emperor Timur ordered the soil brought from Daniel’s tomb in Mosul to be mixed with the soil of Samarkand. Moreover, the local soil was much more abundant. Perhaps Timur wanted to protect the sacred relic from grave robbers, ensuring it safeguarded his capital. By preserving the prophet’s relics, Timur, in the general opinion, secured the protection and patronage of Daniel for his descendants—the rulers of the Timurid dynasty.
However, Daniel’s relics are not unique in this regard. A similar legend—about the miraculous posthumous growth of the legs of the saint Shammun Nabi—was recorded in Mizdahkan, the largest cult complex in northwestern Uzbekistan. Despite some similarities in the legends, we cannot judge whether these are borrowings or remnants of a very ancient cult related to the idea of immortality or the resurrection of a deity.
Meanwhile, local historian and expert on Samarkand’s history, Arthur Samari, points out that the writings of Timur’s biographers contain no mention of the transfer of the prophet Daniel’s relics from Mesopotamia to Samarkand. Samari also notes that the famous medieval Arab-Persian geographer Abu Ishaq al Istakhri (circa 850–934 AD) visited Samarkand four centuries before Timur’s birth—and the mausoleum of Daniel already stood at that time. Some historians suggest that the relics or a portion of them could have been brought to Samarkand by the local Jewish community long before the Arab conquests. The Zoroastrian priests, who dominated the region before Islam, were relatively tolerant and might have allowed the Jews to build their temple outside the city. This version is supported by archaeological findings on the northern slopes of Afrasiab Hill, dating back to the 6th century BC—the very era in which, according to the Bible, the prophet Daniel lived and died. The relics could also have been brought by Christians: during the reign of the Byzantine Emperor Zeno (5th century), a portion of Daniel’s remains was moved from Mosul to Constantinople, which is why another mausoleum of Daniel exists in modern-day Istanbul.
Among the current Muslim clergy in Uzbekistan, the prevailing opinion is that the mausoleum on the northern slope of Afrasiab Hill is not the burial place of the prophet Daniel but of Khodja Daniyol (Doniyor), a Muslim ascetic of the 7th century and a close companion of the legendary Qutham ibn Abbas, the cousin of the Prophet Muhammad. The symbolic burial site of Qutham ibn Abbas—the extensive memorial complex of Shah-i-Zinda (“The Living King”)—is located on the opposite slope of Afrasiab Hill. Historical records indicate that after the Arab conquest of Samarkand in the 8th century, the ancient sanctuaries on Afrasiab Hill were transformed into symbolic tombs of legendary figures in Muslim history. Thus, the version associated with Khodja Daniyol seems the most plausible.
Interestingly, in addition to the supposed relics of the prophet Daniel, pilgrims also revere the sacred spring at the foot of the mausoleum. Its sweet-tasting, highly mineralized water is used for ablutions before visiting the shrine. Pilgrims also drink the water and take it with them to add to other beverages, bathing water, or even laundry. It is believed that the spring’s water cleanses sins and heals illnesses.
According to legend, the five-domed structure of the mausoleum is modeled after a pistachio tree that supposedly grew here over 500 years ago. The legend claims that the sacred spring gushed forth and the tree grew after the mausoleum of the prophet Daniel was built. However, comparisons with other revered sites in Uzbekistan suggest that natural phenomena might have been the first objects of worship here, whether in Zoroastrianism or even older beliefs. Over time, oral traditions surrounded the site with legends more suited to Islam—or even all three religions. For example, in 1996, during his visit to Uzbekistan, the head of the Russian Orthodox Church, Patriarch Alexy II of Moscow and All Russia, visited the mausoleum of the prophet Daniel in Samarkand and stated that he “definitely felt the presence of holiness here.” The patriarch consecrated the mausoleum and an almond tree growing nearby according to Orthodox rites. After this, a new legend emerged: the people of Samarkand began to claim that the tree, which had stood dry for many years, began to bloom and bear fruit again after the consecration.
In 2012, after another restoration, the cult complex on the northern slope of Afrasiab Hill was significantly expanded and adorned with marble. The entire area was also landscaped. However, pilgrims and tourists now have limited access to the inner chambers and the tombstone itself. Nevertheless, they are still allowed to collect water from the sacred spring and, under the guidance of a mullah, perform the namaz-e-ziyarat—a special pilgrimage prayer at the entrance to the mausoleum.
@ Andrey Kudryashov / “Fergana”
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