The Later Middle Ages

The later Middle Ages were a time of great upheaval and transformation, where empires rose and fell, leaving behind a legacy that continues to captivate the imagination of travelers and historians alike.

The Rise of Khorezmshahs
In the 11th century, the Seljuk sultan recognized the loyalty of Anushtegin Muhammad by bestowing upon him the title of Khorezmshah, ruler of Khorezm. His descendants waged a relentless campaign for independence, eventually carving out a dominion that included the fertile lands of Mawarannahr, Chorasan, and beyond. Under the rule of Tekesh, Khorezm flourished, becoming a beacon of medieval Asian power where science and culture thrived.

Genghis Khan’s Onslaught
The year 1215 marked a turning point as Genghis Khan, having conquered China, set his sights on Mawarannahr. The Khorezmshahs, caught unprepared, faced the full might of the Mongol horde. Khorezm Shah Muhammad fled, leaving his son, the valiant commander Jalal ad-Din Manguberdi, to lead the resistance. Despite their courage, the disparity in strength was too great, and the Mongols laid waste to the oasis cities of Khorezm, reducing the once-great Samarkand and Urgench to ruins and decimating the region’s ancient cultural heritage.

Chagatai Ulus Under Mongol Rule
The vast empire of Genghis Khan was divided among his sons, with Chagatai inheriting the lands from Xinjiang to the storied cities of Samarkand and Bukhara. This territory, known as the Chagatai Ulus, saw Mongol rulers impose heavy taxes, leading to repeated rebellions, such as the one led by Mahmoud Taraba in Bukhara in 1238. The suppression of these uprisings led to the fragmentation of Mawarannahr into competing fiefdoms.

The Timurid Empire’s Glory
The mid-14th century witnessed the rise of Amir Timur, who seized Samarkand and declared it the capital of his vast empire. Timur’s reign brought unparalleled splendor to Mawarannahr, with Samarkand hailed as the most beautiful city on Earth. Master architects crafted architectural wonders—palaces, mosques, and mausoleums—that still stand as testaments to the era’s grandeur. Timur’s military campaigns expanded his empire from the Black Sea to the Ganges River, leaving an indelible mark on the region’s history.

The Timurid Legacy
Following Timur’s death in 1405, his empire began to fracture. His son Shahrukh managed to maintain control over Chorasan, Afghanistan, and Mawarannahr, with Herat as his capital and Samarkand under the rule of his son Ulugbek. The Timurid Dynasty, with rulers like Shahrukh, Ulugbek, and Babur, was a golden age for the arts, crafts, trade, and the sciences.

The Shaybanid Dynasty
At the dawn of the 16th century, the Shaybanid Dynasty emerged as the new power in Mawarannahr. Muhammad Shaybani Khan captured Samarkand and established a state that would endure for nearly a century, marked by fierce wars and the eventual division of the centralized state into the Bukhara Emirate, Kokand, and Khiva Khanate.

Khiva, Kokand, and the Bukhara Emirate
The independent state of Khorezm, later known as the Khiva Khanate, flourished under rulers like Ilbars Khan and Abdulgazi Khan. Meanwhile, Bukhara fell under the Manghit Dynasty, with Muhammad Rahim Biy as its emir, leading to a period of civil strife that impacted the region’s economic and cultural life. The Kokand Khanate, established in the Fergana Valley, was another significant state that emerged during this period, with Shakhrukh Biy as its first ruler.

The Central Asian khanates of the mid-19th century were typical feudal states, characterized by a mix of settled, nomadic, and semi-nomadic societies, particularly evident in the Khiva Khanate.