In ancient and medieval times, long lines of camels laden with various goods were the primary means of international communication. These caravans were often under the patronage of rulers, as they filled the markets of their countries and supported the economy. To facilitate travelers, these same rulers financed the construction of caravanserais. However, the architectural expression of these structures rarely achieved monumental significance or artistic value. They were primarily utilitarian and mass-produced buildings with a uniform structure, often likened to modern motels. Nevertheless, those that have survived to this day, even in ruins, can tell us much about the era when the infamous Silk Road thrived.
Today, witnessing the impressive remnants of this bygone era in Turkmenistan and neighboring countries is quite challenging. Many of these sites are located far from modern cities and towns, off the main roads and any notable landmarks, which are scarce among the vast steppes and sandy dunes of the Karakum Desert. Due to their inaccessibility, caravanserais are not included in popular tourist routes, and only highly motivated enthusiasts of antiquity dare to venture such distances, hoping to find them with the help of local guides or satellite navigation systems.
While many ancient caravanserais existed in living historical cities like Kunya-Urgench, Amul, Merv, Serakhs, and Nisa, their traces have vanished under the pressure of modern construction. Similarly, most inns built in the desert along caravan routes were gradually abandoned and fell into disrepair after the decline of overland transcontinental trade in the 15th century. Only a few have been declared monuments and registered by the state; the majority have simply been consumed by the sands, sometimes along with entire settlements. The same fate has befallen neighboring countries, particularly where caravan traffic was relatively intense until the 17th to 19th centuries in Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan, and India.
Arab geographers of the 9th and 10th centuries, such as Ibn Khordabeh, al-Yakubi, Qudama ibn Ja’far, al-Istakhri, and Ibn Hawqal, left behind descriptions of the main caravan routes through Central Asia. However, these and later medieval documents only noted the most significant paths, while secondary routes remained overlooked by their authors.
Although the sound of bells on camel necks has not echoed in the silent Karakum for five centuries, the traces of caravans are still surprisingly visible. They left a distinct track in the terrain, worn over many centuries and deeply etched into the landscape. Despite some ancient camel trails being completely covered by sand, their clarity and the broad cross-section of the roadbed with a narrow “bottom” and gentle slopes allow them to be traced on publicly available satellite images provided by mapping services like Google Earth and Bing Maps. They are also clearly visible on the ground and are passable by off-road vehicles.
Along these routes, chains of caravanserais emerged during the 9th to 12th centuries, many of which operated for quite some time, likely until the last caravans. According to al-Yakubi, they resembled fortresses in the desert, where people sought refuge from the frequent Turkic raids.
Caravanserais, both large and small, were built at intervals of one day’s travel, approximately every 30 to 40 kilometers. Departing at dawn from one stop, a caravan would reach the next by evening. Their appearance indeed resembled fortresses: high blank walls, corner and gate towers—all designed according to fortification principles. Although roadside inns existed even before the Islamic era, their mass construction began only after the Arab conquest of Iran and Central Asia.
Originally, these structures were not intended for merchants and travelers; they were purely military fortifications known in Arabic as “ribats” or “rabats.” They housed volunteer warriors called ghazis, meaning “defenders of the faith.” Over time, as Islam firmly established itself on the eastern fringes of the Arab Caliphate, ribats became civilian: they were used by anyone traveling through the desert in merchant caravans, albeit with military escorts for protection against steppe bandits.
More than a century ago, Swiss Arabist Adam Metz noted, referencing al-Istakhri, that “the maintenance of inns along desert roads was funded by pious donations. The most were found in religious Turkestan, where there were over ten thousand such shelters for travelers.” These travelers primarily consisted of pilgrims to Mecca and other holy sites on the Arabian Peninsula—Muslims journeying from all corners of the Islamic world for hajj and ziyarat, considered the highest purpose of travel. The Quran mandates pilgrimage for all who are able. However, religious and commercial activities are not mutually exclusive; thus, since the early Islamic period, Muslims carried goods with them during hajj to cover travel expenses. Additionally, a number of people traveled for education and training in major cities where madrasas and libraries—akin to modern universities—were concentrated.
Consequently, a significant portion of Muslims was constantly on the move for commercial, religious, or educational purposes. It was for their service that inns were built. This is why the most prominent structures of this kind featured not only luxurious ornamental decor but also monumental epigraphy of a religious nature. One such example is the main facade of the Dayakhatyn caravanserai on the eastern edge of the Karakums, located near the banks of the Amu Darya, built or likely reconstructed during the Great Seljuk era in the center of the Tahirid rabat, which originated much earlier, in the early 9th century.
The art of choosing the right location for construction, considering the terrain and surrounding landscape, as well as the precise proportions of volumes and details of the building, transforms a utilitarian object into a work of architecture. This quality is inherent in all architectural masterpieces from antiquity to the present. Dayakhatyn can confidently be included among them, as these conditions are fully met in its design. The preserved sections of the facades, virtuously constructed from bricks, and the vaults demonstrate the highest level of craftsmanship from the Seljuk period. These artisans could create intricate geometric ornaments and lapidary inscriptions from simple bricks, producing flawless compositions on the facades. Dayakhatyn showcases a variety of figurative and relief masonry, creating a plastically expressive surface.
Initially, Dayakhatyn was certainly not an ordinary inn for all passing caravans. Both its remarkable exterior and the luxurious interiors for the time, along with the unique internal layout, indicate that it served as a steppe residence for sultans from the Seljuk dynasty. Royal figures, along with their courtiers, would stop here to rest during hunting or military campaigns, safeguarding the eastern frontier of their vast empire.
In the 15th or 16th centuries, Dayakhatyn, by then partially ruined, underwent minor reconstruction. Its entrance was completely rebuilt, featuring a tall arched portal that is unmistakable compared to the delicate Seljuk masonry. The new construction was less meticulous, made from larger bricks and entirely devoid of any decoration. This suggests that when the centralized Timurid state collapsed, leading to prolonged anarchy and the cessation of caravans from distant lands, the local economy declined, and construction culture deteriorated.
Dayakhatyn was spared the fate of many other monuments of its age, which were dismantled brick by brick, as it is located too far from populated areas. However, it still suffered the ravages of time. Its condition allowed architects and restorers to create a reconstruction hypothesis of its former appearance using 3D graphics and begin practical restoration of the building’s lost parts, as well as architectural decor elements.
While Dayakhatyn, now attended to by restorers, faces no threats, dozens of other desert monuments lost in the Karakums are literally eroding under the effects of wind and rain. Perhaps the most impressive of these are located along the caravan route between the modern cities of Bayramali and Turkmenabad. Here, the walls and towers of Akcha-kala, the largest caravanserai in all of Central Asia, still stand. Its majestic silhouette appears suddenly as the vehicle emerges from behind a high hill, revealing a vast panorama of the plain with a solitary structure resembling a mirage. Just as in the past, weary travelers likely quickened their pace, urging their camels to reach the welcoming shelter that awaited them.
No one knows the origins of certain names in local toponymy. Akcha-kala translates from Turkmen as “White Fortress.” However, it should be noted that it is not “White” (Ak) but “Whiteish” (Akcha). This is likely a metaphor; there is nothing white about it; the structure is entirely made of mud bricks and has the same yellow-gray color as the surrounding earth. This station is not mentioned in the travel accounts of the 9th and 10th centuries, as it was established during the Seljuk period in the second half of the 11th century. Unlike most Central Asian caravanserais with a single inner courtyard, as seen in Dayakhatyn, Akcha-kala features two courtyards arranged one behind the other along a common long axis. The first courtyard served as a service area, housing warehouses and animal stalls, while the second was residential. This division into utility and clean zones is quite rational and designed to maximize comfort for guests.
At the center of the main facade of Akcha-kala stands a powerful, slightly protruding portal with a pointed arch entrance and smooth, massive supports. The blank walls on the left and right are adorned with large semicircular flutings. The fluting of the walls is a very archaic technique known in Eastern architecture long before antiquity. Initially, it was likely related to fortification and the structural stability of the outer walls, but in the Middle Ages, it was used purely decoratively, with notable exceptions occurring only in two historical regions: the oasis of Merv and Khorezm.
A slightly smaller copy of Akcha-kala is located 23 kilometers away and is similarly a two-part caravanserai from the 11th to 12th centuries, now called Kunya-kala (literally “Old Fortress”). It has weathered significantly more due to being built from lower-quality clay. Whether it had flutings on its facades is unknown; the worn remnants of the walls no longer reveal anything about its former decor. However, five kilometers from Akcha-kala, another fluted structure remains, albeit of a different type. This well-known site from Arab travel accounts, at-Tahmalaj, rises amid a vast takyr. A compact two-story building on a high platform with sloping edges almost adjoins a large courtyard. All four facades feature closed semicylinders. The lower level has yet to be excavated, while the upper level appears unusual: identical square chambers topped with shallow domes, forming a grid with nine cells in plan. It does not resemble a dwelling; rather, it looks like a warehouse, yet this small castle appears quite monumental from the outside.
The discoverer of this and many other Karakum monuments, academician Galina Pugachenko, reasonably believed that at-Tahmalaj represents the earliest form of caravanserai: before large stations were built according to the “courtyard surrounded by rooms” scheme, travelers would stop in such tight castles.
In recent years, public interest in such remnants of a long-forgotten past has noticeably increased. On one hand, this is linked to a significant research project involving Turkmen specialists alongside their British colleagues, preparing an interstate dossier to include certain segments of the Silk Road in the UNESCO World Heritage List. On the other hand, Turkmenistan is implementing a four-year state program for archaeological excavations at major sites located along caravan routes. All of this instills hope that our heritage will remain with us and perhaps shine with new discoveries.
based on R. G. Muradov’s article ‘REGIONAL FEATURES OF THE CARAVANSARAIS IN THE KARAKUM DESERT’